Genomics Development:
Impact in developing countries with special reference to Africa

written by: Doreen Shumba Mnyulwa

Africa is facing many challenges, chief among them being food insecurity, environmental degradation, climate change, poverty and human health. As in most developing countries, agriculture is the backbone of African societies. It is central to the survival of up to 80%
of the population. This essay therefore focuses on the potential of genomics to improve the knowledge (and sustainable exploitation) of biological resources, in order to mitigate that continent’s challenges.

Genomics theoretically provides a powerful ‘toolbox’ capable of addressing these issues.
But theory can only become reality after an intensive and exhaustive process of contextualisation. As with any toolbox, genomics (and its uses) bears the socio-economic and political imprint of the societies from which it emerged. Genomics provides solutions which are tailored to meet the challenges provided by its context, inasmuch as it is restricted by the boundaries involved. Such a notion is neither new nor surprising. Anyone having even a passing familiarity with the debates surrounding agricultural genomics will be aware of the differences between Europe and the United States. These relate both to application and policy,
and to appreciation by consumers and by the public at large.

Many feel that developing countries, on the other hand, are just passively waiting to benefit from the fruits of Northern investments in innovation. Whereas a traditional approach to transferring technology might work between the United States and Europe, it is not likely to be effective between the North and developing countries.

The current focus on (and spread of) food-related genetically modified organisms (GMOs) serves as a case in point. The most successful commercial GMOs are hybrid varieties of rapeseed, maize, and cotton, as well as patent-protected soybeans that resist herbicides and/or certain classes of insects. Most of these crops and traits are only marginally relevant to the most common type of agriculture in Africa (small-scale, low external input). In addition, most African countries lack an adequate and effectively implemented regulatory framework for assessing food and environmental safety, nor do they have the facilities to safeguard the intellectual propriety rights of the GMO patent holders.

From a technical point of view, it is doubtful whether genetic modification will ever become relevant to day-to-day farming in developing countries, even if it is sufficiently contextualised. Modification so far has been limited to monogenic traits that could be inserted into the genome relatively easily, and at random. The development of polygenic solutions to location-specific stresses is well beyond the scope of the current GM toolbox, and that of upcoming delivery systems. The gap between what might be relevant and what is possible is too great to be
bridged by the contextualisation of genetic modification to the specific challenges of small-scale agriculture.

Nevertheless, one cannot discount the potential usefulness of the molecular toolbox to small-scale farmers. Work on the genetic modification of organisms has given a tremendous boost to our understanding of the characteristics and functioning of plants and animals at the molecular level.

The emergence of functional genomics, and the identification of molecular markers for polygenic traits, means that breeding programmes are no longer limited by agronomy, taxonomy and season. Marker-assisted breeding programmes have the potential to tackle location-specific problems in local crop varieties in almost half the time taken by conventional breeding programmes. This would provide an interesting arena for the contextualisation of knowledge, provided that sufficient funds are made available to investigate such public-interest topics.

The obvious differences within and between the North and the South must be taken into account when defining the level or degree to which molecular technologies can be designed or adapted to solve the problems of small-scale farmers in the South. There are huge disparities both within and between North and South with respect to production constraints, physical environment,
and availability of resources, business environment, infrastructure, supportive policies,
and public understanding.

This gives rise to the question of whether genomic-related solutions could deliver appropriate answers to the identified constraints/challenges/needs. If this is not presently the case, could such solutions be developed? How might this be done, and by whom? How can these solutions reach farmers and trigger positive effects? Why is it that developing countries in general and African countries in particular, are shying away from this technology? Could it be that too few appropriate applications are currently being promoted? How effective have conventional options been? Can we learn from apparent failures in the past in order to address the developing world’s problems? What role does the North/South relationship play in the development, promotion and use of these technologies?

Drawing upon past attempts to exploit molecular biology to improve the livelihoods of poor farmers in Zimbabwe (Wedza and Buhera), the essay reflects upon how the developing world could benefit from the genomics revolution in its broadest sense. Any assessment of the suitability of a given approach for developing technologies for the South must not focus solely on the technological promises. Current policies and research, innovation and agenda-setting methods must also be taken into account.

The basic conclusion put forward in this essay is that, if they are to contribute effectively to development, research and development, agendas must be based on more than the ‘trickle-down’ strategies of Northern technology development. They also need to be defined and implemented by the major stakeholders, including prospective users. Such an approach will substantially increase the chances of local commitment and support. It would also enable research and development to contribute effectively to sustainable socio-economic development, while helping to influence emerging national policies and the regulatory regime.